Apply the laws of thermodynamics: heat transfer, ideal gas, entropy and Carnot cycle.
A thermodynamics calculator handles ideal gas law calculations, heat transfer (Q = mcΔT), latent heat for phase changes, and basic Carnot cycle efficiency. These cover the bulk of undergraduate thermodynamics problems and the routine engineering calculations for HVAC, refrigeration, and engine design.
The four laws of thermodynamics govern energy and matter in all bulk processes — from a hot cup of coffee cooling to the operation of jet engines to the formation of galaxies. The second law (entropy increases) sets the direction of time and limits the efficiency of all heat engines.
PV = nRT \;;\; Q = mc\Delta T \;;\; \eta_{Carnot} = 1 - \frac{T_C}{T_H}
Inputs: Heat 1 L of water from 20 °C to 100 °C
The second law of thermodynamics requires that some heat be rejected to a lower-temperature reservoir; otherwise entropy would decrease in violation of the law. The maximum theoretical efficiency is Carnot's: η = 1 − T_cold/T_hot (in Kelvin). A car engine with combustion at 2000 K and exhaust at 600 K has Carnot limit ≈ 70%; real engines achieve 25–35% due to additional irreversibilities.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy per molecule. Heat is the total thermal energy transferred from one system to another. A swimming pool at 25 °C and a teacup at 25 °C are at the same temperature, but the pool contains vastly more heat (more molecules with the same average energy per molecule).
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